test collection

A listing of the various RFI in this frequency band is available here.

Also available are spectra per 128 MHz subband.

CSV files for RR and LL - 10/10

CSV files for RR and LL - 11/21

CSV files for RR and LL - 11/25

CSV files for RR and LL - 11/25

CSV files for RR and LL - 12/02

CSV files for RR and LL - 12/12

CSV files for RR and LL - 12/12

CSV files for RR and LL - 01/06

CSV files for RR and LL - 01/06

CSV files for RR and LL - 01/21

CSV files for RR and LL - 02/10

CSV files for RR and LL - 02/10

CSV files for RR and LL - 02/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 02/24

A listing of the various RFI in this frequency band is available here.

Also available are spectra per 128 MHz subband.

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/13

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/13

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/07

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/07

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 05/05

CSV files for RR and LL - 05/05

A listing of the various RFI in this frequency band is available here.

Also available are spectra per 128 MHz subband.

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/13

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/13

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/07

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/07

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 05/05

CSV files for RR and LL - 05/05

A listing of the various RFI in this frequency band is available here.

Also available are spectra per 128 MHz subband.

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/13

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/13

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 03/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/07

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/07

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 04/24

CSV files for RR and LL - 05/05

CSV files for RR and LL - 05/05

May 9, 2025

11:00am Mountain

Alice Harding (LANL)

Pulsars in the High-Energy Sky

Abstract

Of the several thousand pulsars that have been discovered by radio telescopes over the past fifty years, only a handful were known to emit gamma-ray pulsations before the launch in June, 2008 of the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope. After 17 years of operation, over 300 gamma-ray pulsars have been detected and a new population of radio-quiet pulsars has been discovered. Millisecond pulsars have been confirmed as powerful sources of gamma-ray emission, and a whole population of these objects is seen with Fermi both in the Galactic plane and in globular clusters. A gamma-ray pulsar timing array (PTA) using millisecond pulsars is now operating and may soon independently detect the gravitational wave background recently discovered by radio PTAs. Fermi has thus revolutionized the study of pulsars and allowed us to peer deeper into the inner workings of these incredibly efficient natural particle accelerators. These discoveries, together with recent progress in global simulation of pulsar magnetospheres, are changing our models of pulsar particle acceleration and high-energy as well as coherent radio emission..

Local Host: Dale Frail

Purpose of Document, Older Versions of the OSS

Resolution

The VLA's resolution is generally diffraction-limited, and thus is set by the array configuration and the observing frequency. Like all synthesis arrays, the VLA is sensitive only to structures on a range of angular scales between the diffraction limit (the smallest angular scale detectable) and a "Largest Angular Scale" (which depends on the fringe spacing formed by the shortest baselines in the configuration). For emission structures smaller than the diffraction limit (θ ∼ λ/B_max), the VLA acts like a single-dish instrument—the resulting image is smoothed to the resolution of the array. For emission structures larger than the detectable range, the VLA is simply blind to the emission; this is a limitation unique to interferometers. No subsequent processing can fully recover the missing information from these large scales. It can only be obtained by observing in a more compact VLA array configuration or with data from an instrument that is sensitive to the missing angular scales, such as a large single dish or a compact array of smaller antennas.

Table 3.1.1 displays the VLA's resolution and the scale at which severe attenuation of large-scale structure occurs. This table shows the maximum and minimum antenna separations, the approximate synthesized beam size (full width at half-power; the resolution element) for the central frequency for each band, and the largest angular scale of detectable emission.

These estimates of the synthesized beamwidth are for a uniformly weighted, untapered map produced from a full 12 hour synthesis observation of a source which passes near the zenith.

Notes:

1. B_max is the maximum antenna separation, B_min is the minimum antenna separation, θ_HPBW is the synthesized beam width (FWHM), and θ_LAS is the largest angular scale structure visible to the array.

2. The listed resolutions are appropriate for sources with declinations between −15 and +75 degrees.

3. The approximate resolution for a naturally weighted map is about 1.5 times the numbers listed for θ_HPBW. The values for snapshots are about 1.3 times the listed values.

4. The largest angular scale structure is that which can be imaged reasonably well in full synthesis observations. For single snapshot observations, the quoted numbers should be divided by two.

5. For the C configuration, an antenna from the middle of the north arm is moved to the central pad N1. This results in improved imaging for extended objects, but may slightly degrade snapshot performance. Note that although the minimum spacing is the same as in D configuration, the surface brightness sensitivity and image fidelity to extended structure is considerably inferior to that of the D configuration.

The following figure is a graphical representation of the synthesized beamwidths for natural and robust weighting for the four main array configurations between 1 and 50 GHz. Also available are synthesized beamwidth figures for the low frequency (1–12 GHz) and the high frequency (12–50 GHz) receiver bands.

(click image to enlarge)

Sensitivity

The theoretical thermal noise expected for an image using natural weighting of the visibility data is given by:

where:

- SEFD is the system equivalent flux density (Jy), defined as the flux density of a radio source that doubles the system temperature. Lower values of the SEFD indicate more sensitive performance. For the VLA's 25–meter paraboloids, the SEFD is given by the equation SEFD = 5.62T_sys/η_A, where T_sys is the total system temperature (receiver plus antenna plus sky), and η_A is the antenna aperture efficiency in the given band.

- η_c is the correlator efficiency (~0.93 with the use of the 8-bit samplers).

- n_pol is the number of polarization products included in the image; n_pol = 2 for images in Stokes I, Q, U, or V, and n_pol = 1 for images in RCP or LCP.

- N is the number of antennas.

- t_int is the total on-source integration time in seconds.

- Δν is the bandwidth in Hz.

Figure 3.2.1 shows the SEFDs as a function of frequency used in the VLA exposure calculator for those Cassegrain bands currently installed on VLA antennas, and include the contribution to Tsys from atmospheric emission at the zenith. Figure 3.2.2 shows the SEFDs as a function of frequency for the P-band; these measurements are based on imaging of a field far from the galactic plane. Table 3.2.1 gives the SEFD at some fiducial VLA frequencies.

 Figure 3.2.1: SEFD used in the Exposure Calculator for the VLA. Left: The system equivalent flux density as a function of frequency for the L, S, C and X-band receivers. Right: The system equivalent flux density as a function of frequency for the Ku, K, Ka, and Q-band receivers. SEFDs at Ku, K, Ka, and Q bands include contributions from Earth's atmosphere and were determined under good conditions. 

Figure 3.2.2: The SEFD used in the VLA Exposure Calculator as a function of frequency for the P-band receiver

Note that the theoretical rms noise calculated using equation 1 is the best limit possible. There are several factors that will tend to increase the noise compared with theoretical:

• For the more commonly used robust weighting scheme, intermediate between pure natural and pure uniform weightings (available in the AIPS task IMAGR and CASA task clean), typical parameters will result in the sensitivity being a factor of about 1.2 worse than the listed values.
• Confusion. There are two types of confusion: (i) that due to confusing sources within the synthesized beam, which affects low resolution observations the most. Table 3.2.1 shows the confusion noise in D configuration assuming robust weighting (see Condon et al. 2012, ApJ, 758),  which should be added in quadrature to the thermal noise in estimating expected sensitivities. The confusion limits in C configuration are approximately a factor of 10 less than those in Table 3.2.1; (ii) confusion from the sidelobes of uncleaned sources lying outside the image, often from sources in the sidelobes of the primary beam. This confusion primarily affects low frequency observations.
• Weather. The sky and ground temperature contributions to the total system temperature increase with decreasing elevation. This effect is very strong at high frequencies, but is relatively unimportant at the other bands. The extra noise comes directly from atmospheric emission: primarily from water vapor at K-band, and from water vapor and the broad wings of the strong 60 GHz O₂ transitions at Q-band.
• Losses from the 3-bit samplers. The VLA's 3-bit samplers incur an additional 10–15% loss in sensitivity above that expected—i.e., the efficiency factor η_c = 0.78 to 0.83.

In general, the zenith atmospheric opacity to microwave radiation is very low: typically less than 0.01 at L, C, and X-bands; 0.05 to 0.2 at K-band; and 0.05 to 0.1 at the lower half of Q-band, rising to 0.3 by 49 GHz. The opacity at K-band displays strong variations with time of day and season, primarily due to the 22 GHz water vapor line. Observing conditions are best at night and in the winter. Q-band opacity, dominated by atmospheric O₂, is considerably less variable.

Observers should remember that clouds, especially clouds with large water droplets (thunderstorms), can add appreciable noise to the system temperature. Significant increases in system temperature can, in the worst conditions, be seen at frequencies as low as 5 GHz.

Tipping scans—which are currently unavailable but will be implemented at some time in the future—can be used for deriving the zenith opacity during an observation. In general, tipping scans should only be needed if the calibrator used to set the flux density scale is observed at a significantly different elevation than the range of elevations over which the complex gain calibrator (amplitude and phase) and target source are observed.

When the flux density calibrator observations are within the elevation range spanned by the science observing, elevation dependent effects (including both atmospheric opacity and antenna gain dependencies) can be accounted for by fitting an elevation-dependent gain term. See the following items:

• Antenna elevation-dependent gains. The antenna figure degrades at low elevations, leading to diminished forward gain at the shorter wavelengths. The gain-elevation effect is negligible at frequencies below 8 GHz. The antenna gains can be determined by direct measurement of the relative system gain using the AIPS task ELINT on data from a strong calibrator which has been observed over a wide range of elevation. If this is not possible, care should be taken to observe a primary flux calibrator at the same elevation as the target.

  Both CASA and AIPS allow the application of elevation-dependent gains and an estimated opacity generated from ground-based weather through the CASA tasks gencal and plotweather, and AIPS task INDXR.

• Pointing. The SEFD quoted above assumes good pointing. Under calm, nighttime conditions, the antenna blind pointing is about 10 arcsec rms. The pointing accuracy in daytime can be much worse—occasionally exceeding 1 arcminte due to the effects of solar heating of the antenna structures. Moderate winds have a very strong effect on both pointing and antenna figure. The maximum wind speed recommended for high frequency observing is 11 mph (5 m/s). Wind speeds near the stow limit 45 mph (20 m/s) will have a similar negative effect at 8 and 15 GHz.

To achieve increased pointing accuracy, referenced pointing is recommended where a nearby calibrator is observed in interferometric pointing mode every hour or so. The local pointing corrections measured can then be applied to subsequent target observations. This reduces rms pointing errors to as little as 2–3 arcseconds (but more typically 5–7 arcseconds) if the reference source is within about 15 degrees in azimuth and elevation of the target source and the source elevation is less than 70 degrees. At source elevations greater than 80 degrees (zenith angle < 10 degrees), source tracking becomes difficult; it is recommended to avoid such source elevations during the observation preparation setup.

Use of referenced pointing is highly recommended for all Ku, K, Ka, and Q-band observations, and for lower frequency observations of objects whose total extent is a significant fraction of the antenna primary beam. It is usually recommended that the referenced pointing measurement be made at 8 GHz (X-band), regardless of what band your target observing is at, since X-band is the most sensitive and the closest calibrator is likely to be weak. Proximity of the reference calibrator to the target source is of paramount importance; ideally the pointing sources should precede the target by 20 or 30 minutes in Right Ascension (RA). The calibrator should have at least 0.3 Jy flux density at X-band and be unresolved on all baselines to ensure an accurate solution.

To aid VLA proposers there is an online guide to the exposure calculator; the exposure calculator provides a graphical user interface to these equations.

Special caveats apply for P-band (230–470 MHz) observing. The SEFD's in Figure 3.2.2 or that listed in table 3.1.2 are from an observation taken far from the Galactic plane, where the sky brightness is about 30K. At P-band, Galactic synchrotron emission is very bright in directions near the Galactic plane. The system temperature increase due to Galactic emission will degrade sensitivity by factors of two to three for observations in the plane, and by a factor of five or more at or near the Galactic center. Additionally, the antenna efficiency (currently about 0.31 for 300 MHz) will decline with both increasing and decreasing frequencies from the center of P-band.

The beam-averaged brightness temperature measured by a given array depends on the synthesized beam, and is related to the flux density per beam by:

where T_b is the brightness temperature (Kelvins) and Ω is the beam solid angle. For natural weighting (where the angular size of the approximately Gaussian beam is ∼1.5λ/B_max), and S in mJy per beam, the parameter F depends on the synthesized beam, therefore on the array configuration, and has the approximate value of F = 190, 18, 1.7, 0.16 for A, B, C, and D configurations, respectively. The brightness temperature sensitivity can be obtained by substituting the rms noise, ΔI_m, for S. Note that Equation 2 is a beam-averaged surface brightness; if a source size can be measured, then the source size and integrated flux density should be used in Equation 2 and the appropriate value of F calculated. In general, the surface brightness sensitivity is also a function of the source structure and how much emission may be filtered out due to the sampling of the interferometer. A more detailed description of the relation between flux density and surface brightness is given in Chapter 6 of Reference 1, listed in Documentation.

For observers interested in HI in galaxies, a number of interest is the sensitivity of the observation to the HI mass. This is given by van Gorkom et al. (1986; AJ, 91, 791):

where D is the distance to the galaxy in Mpc, and SΔV is the HI line area in units of Jy km/s.

Bands

For observations taken with the 8-bit samplers, each receiver can tune to two different frequencies, each 1024 MHz wide, within the same frequency band. Right-hand circular (RCP) and left-hand circular (LCP) polarizations are received for both frequencies, except for the low-band receiver (50–500 MHz), which provides linear polarization (X and Y). Each of these four data streams follows the VLA nomenclature and are known as IF (for Intermediate Frequency channel) A, B, C, and D. IFs A and B provide RCP (or Y when applicable), IFs C and D provide LCP (or X when applicable). IFs A and C are always at the same frequency, as are IFs B and D (but note that the A and C IFs frequency is usually different from the B and D frequency). We normally refer to these two independent data streams as IF pairs, i.e., the A/C pair and the B/D pair. In 8-bit mode, a maximum of 1024 MHz can be correlated for each IF pair (see the WIDAR Section), for a total maximum bandwidth of 2048 MHz. To distinguish this 8-bit system from the 3-bit system, these IF pairs are denoted A0/C0 and B0/D0.

More options are available with the 3-bit samplers. This system provides four (R,L) polarization pairs, each 2048 MHz wide. The A/C IF pair provides two sampled pairs, labelled A1/C1 and A2/C2, and the B/D IF pair provides two sampled pairs, labelled B1/D1 and B2/D2.

For more details on the 8-bit and 3-bit samplers see the VLA Samplers section.

The tuning ranges, along with default frequencies for continuum applications, are given in Table 3.3.1 below.

Table 3.3.1: Default frequencies for continuum applications

Band	Range1	8-bit continuum applications (GHz)		3-bit continuum applications (GHz)
	(GHz)	IF pair A0/C0	IF pair B0/D0	IF pair A1/C1	IF pair A2/C2	IF pair B1/D1	IF pair B2/D2
4 m (4)	0.054 – 0.0842	—	.070 – .082	—	—	—	—
90 cm (P)	0.20 – 0.503	0.224 – 0.4803	—	—	—	—	—
4 m (4)/90 cm (P)	0.054 – 0.0842/ 0.20 – 0.503	0.224 – 0.4803	.070 – .082
20 cm (L)	1.0 – 2.04	1.0 – 1.54	1.5 – 2.04	—	—	—	—
13 cm (S)	2.0 – 4.0	2.0 – 3.0	3.0 – 4.0	—	—	—	—
6 cm (C)	4.0 – 8.0	4.5 – 5.5	5.5 – 6.5	4.0 – 6.0	6.0 – 8.0	—	—
3 cm (X)	8.0 – 12.0	8.0 – 9.0	9.0 – 10.0	8.0 – 10.0	10.0 – 12.0	—	—
2 cm (Ku)	12.0 – 18.0	13.0 – 14.0	14.0 – 15.0	12.0 – 14.0	14.0 – 16.0	—	16.0 – 18.0
1.3 cm (K)	18.0 – 26.5	20.2 – 21.2	21.2 – 22.2	22.0 – 24.0	24.0 – 26.0	18.0 – 20.0	20.0 – 22.0
1 cm (Ka)	26.5 – 40.0	32.0 – 33.0	31.0 – 32.0	33.0 – 35.0	35.0 – 37.0	29.0 – 31.0	31.0 – 33.0
0.7 cm (Q)	40.0 – 50.0	40.0 – 41.0	41.0 – 42.0	44.0 – 46.0	46.0 – 48.0	40.0 – 42.0	42.0 – 44.0

Notes:

1.  Listed here are the nominal band edges. For all bands, the receivers can be tuned to frequencies outside this range, but at the cost of diminished performance. Contact the NRAO Helpdesk for further information.

2. The 4-band system is currently under development. The default frequency range maximizes sensitivity of the system and provides a nominal bandwidth of 12 MHz and a channel resolution of 64 kHz.

3. The default setup for P-band will provide 16 subbands from the A0/C0 IF pair, each 16 MHz wide, to cover the frequency range 224–480 MHz. The channel resolution is 125 kHz. 

4. The default frequency setup for L-band comprises two 512 MHz IF pairs (each comprising 8 contiguous subbands of 64 MHz) to cover the entire 1–2 GHz of the L-band receiver.

Tuning Restrictions

In general, for all frequency bands except Ka, if the total span of the two independent IF pairs of the 8-bit system (defined as the frequency difference between the lower edge of one IF pair and the upper edge of the other) is less than 8.0 GHz, there are no restrictions on the frequency placements of the two IF pairs. For K, Ka, and Q-bands—the only bands where a span greater than 8 GHz is possible—there are special rules:

• At Ka-band, the low frequency edge of the A0/C0 IF pair must be greater than 32.0 GHz. There is no restriction on the B0/D0 frequency, unless the B0/D0 band overlaps the A0/C0 band when the latter is tuned at or near the 32.0 GHz limit. In this case, the Observation Preparation Tool (OPT) may not allow the requested frequency setups. Users wanting to use such a frequency setup are encouraged to contact the NRAO Helpdesk for possible tuning options.
• At K and Q-bands, if the frequency span is greater than 8.0 GHz, the B0/D0 frequency must be lower than the A0/C0 frequency.

For the 3-bit system, the maximum frequency span permitted for the A1/C1 and A2/C2 IF pairs is about 5000 MHz. The same restriction applies to B1/D1 and B2/D2. The tuning restrictions given above for the separation and location of the 8-bit pairs A0/C0 and B0/D0 also apply to the 3-bit pairs, with A0/C0 replaced by A1/C1 and A2/C2, and B0/D0 replaced by B1/D1 and B2/D2.

The default integration times for the various array configurations and frequency bands are as follows:

Observations with the 3-bit (wideband) samplers, when applicable, should use these integration times. Observations with the 8-bit samplers may use shorter integration times, but these must be requested and justified explicitly in the proposal, and obey the following restrictions:

Note that integration times as short as 5 msec and data rates as high as 300 MB/s can be supported for some observing, though any such observing is considered Resident Shared Risk Observing. For these short integration times and high data rates there will be limits on bandwidth and/or number of antennas involved in the observation. Those desiring to utilize such short integration times and high data rates should consult with NRAO staff.

The maximum recommended integration time for any VLA observing is 10 seconds.

Observers should bear in mind the data rate of the VLA when planning their observations. For N_ant antennas and integration time Δt, the data rate^† is:

Here N_chpol is the sum over all subbands of spectral channels times polarization products:

where N_chan,i is the number of spectral channels in subband i, and N_polprod,i is the number of polarization products for subband i (1 for single polarization [RR or LL], 2 for dual polarization [RR and LL], 4 for full polarization products [RR, RL, LR, LL]). This formula, combined with the maximum data rates given above, imply that observations using the maximum number of channels currently available (16384) will be limited to minimum integration times of ~2 seconds for standard observations, and 0.8 seconds for shared risk observations.

We note that frequency averaging in the correlator will reduce the total number of channels. Therefore, the data rate and the data volume will be reduced by the same channel averaging factor. See the Chromatic Aberration section for more details on the frequency averaging in the correlator and to assess its impact on your science.

These data rates are challenging for transfer and analysis. Data may be downloaded via ftp over the Internet. For users whose science permits, the Archive Access Tool allows some level of frequency averaging in order to decrease data set sizes before ftp; note that the full spectral resolution will be retained in the NRAO archive for all observations.

^†Note: The data rate formula given above does not account for the auto-correlations delivered by WIDAR. Precise data rate values can be obtained through the use of the Resource Catalog Tool for proposing (RCT-proposing).

The very wide bandwidths of the VLA mean that radio frequency interference (RFI) will be present in a far larger fraction of current observations than in observations made with the old systems. Considerable effort has gone into making the VLA's electronics as linear as possible, so that the effects of any RFI will remain limited to the actual frequencies at which the RFI exists. Non-linear effects, such as receiver saturation, should occur only for those very unlikely, and usually very brief, times when the emitter is within the antenna primary beam.

RFI is primarily a problem within the low frequency (C, S, L, and the low-band system) bands, and is most serious in the D configuration. With increasing frequency and increasing resolution comes an increasing fringe rate, which is often very effective in reducing interference to tolerable levels.

The bands within the tuning range of the VLA which are protected for radio astronomy are: 73.0-74.6 MHz, 322.0-328.6 MHz, 1400–1427 MHz, 1660.6–1670.0 MHz, 2690–2700 MHz, 4990–5000 MHz, 10.68–10.7 GHz, 15.35–15.4 GHz, 22.21–22.5 GHz, 23.6–24.0 GHz, 31.3–31.8 GHz, and 42.5–43.5 GHz. No significant external interference should occur within these bands.

VLA staff periodically observes the entire radio spectrum with the VLA, from 1.0 through 50.0 GHz with 125 kHz channel resolution, to monitor the ever-changing RFI spectrum. Users concerned about the precise frequencies of strong RFI, and the likelihood of being affected, are encouraged to peruse these plots. To access these plots, or for more information on RFI, including the impact of satellite transmissions, please see the RFI section in the Guide to Observing with the VLA.

The position of a target can be determined to a small fraction of the synthesized beam, limited by atmospheric phase stability, the proximity of an astrometric calibrator, the calibrator-source cycle time, and the SNR on target.

In preparation for observing, the a priori position must be known to within the antenna primary beam, except perhaps for mosaicking observations. In the special case of using the phased VLA as a VLBI element, the a priori position must be accurate to within the synthesized beam of the array.

In post-processing, target positions are typically determined from an image made after phase calibration, i.e., correcting the antenna and atmospheric phases as determined on the reference source. The accuracy of the calibration determines the accuracy of the positions in the image. Note that phase self-calibration imposes the assumed position of the model, i.e., makes the position indeterminate. Therefore, an absolute position cannot be determined after self-calibration, but relative positions between features within a self-calibrated image are valid.

It may help to think of astrometry as two methods, narrow-field and wide-field.

Narrow-field astrometry

In narrow-field astrometry, the target is close to the phase tracking center and the antennas nod every few minutes between the target and a calibrator.  If no special calibration provisions are taken, under typical conditions, an astrometric accuracy of ~10% of the synthesized beam FWHM can often be obtained.  For example, an observation in Ka-band (~33 GHz) in A-configuration might reach an astrometric accuracy of ~10 milliarcseconds (mas).  When care is taken (special calibrations and ideal observing conditions), the accuracy can approach 1–2% of the synthesized beam, with a floor of ~2 mas.  If such accuracies are needed, we strongly recommend obtaining advice from VLA staff in setting up the observations.

Astrometric calibrators are marked J2000 A in the VLA calibrator list, and have a positional accuracy of ~2 mas. Other catalogs from the USNO and the VLBA are also useful, but offsets may exist between the VLA and VLBA centroids arising from extended structure in the particular source and the different resolutions of the arrays.

For studies of proper motion and parallax, the absolute accuracy of a calibrator may be less important than its stability over time. Close, or in-beam calibrators with poor a priori positions, can be used and tied to the ICRF reference frame in the same or separate observations.

Phase stability can be assessed in real time from the Atmospheric Phase Interferometer (API) at the VLA site, which uses observations of a geostationary satellite at ~12 GHz. Dynamic scheduling uses the API data to run a project under suitable conditions specified by the user. VLBI projects using the phased VLA will typically be fixed date and not dynamically scheduled.

Wide-field astrometry

Wide-field astrometry is used to determine the positions of targets within the primary beam, referenced to a calibrator within the beam or close by. In addition to the previous effects, there are distortions as a function of position in the field, from small errors in the Earth Orientation Parameters (EOP) used at correlation time, differential aberration, and phase gradients across the primary beam. With no special effort, the errors build up to roughly one synthesized beam at a separation of ~10⁴ beams from the phase tracking center. Not all these errors are fully understood, and accurate recovery of positions over the full primary beam in the wide-band, wide-field case is a research area. These effects are handled somewhat differently in the post-processing packages. Check with VLA staff for more details via the NRAO Helpdesk.

Normal calibration of the flux density scale for VLA observations is effected by including a scan on a source of presumed known flux density in each Scheduling Block (SB). Using that known flux density source, the flux density of the complex gain calibrator(s) can be determined and then transferred to your target source(s). Historically, 3C48 and 3C286 have been the standard sources for which NRAO has assumed flux densities are known as a function of frequency, and which have been recommended as flux density scale calibrator sources for the VLA. Restrictions on baseline length as a function of VLA configuration and observing band were supplied which, if followed, allowed relatively accurate flux density scale calibration. We have recently improved the ability to calibrate the flux density scale by providing sky brightness models for these sources in CASA and AIPS, which loosens the restrictions on configurations and bands. We have also added the sources 3C138* and 3C147 to the list of calibrators that have models. However, 3C48, 3C138*, and 3C147 have spectral flux densities that vary with time (3C286, along with 3C295 and 3C196, are constant), so some care should be taken if the most accurate flux density scale calibration is desired.

Note: While accurate models are available in both AIPS and CASA for various frequency bands for the calibrators 3C286, 3C48, 3C147, and 3C138*, neither 3C295 nor 3C196 has such models in CASA. Therefore, the VLA CASA calibration pipeline will fail if these two calibrators are used. Furthermore, 3C295 and 3C196 may not be suitable for all VLA configurations and frequencies even if one chooses to not use the pipeline.

A single observation of a few minutes of one of the above-mentioned flux density scale calibrators will suffice for most observers. If possible, the flux density scale calibrator should be observed at a time when it is nearly at the same elevation as the complex gain calibrator, especially for the highest four bands (Ku-, K-, Ka-, and Q-band). This is not always possible because of timing and geometry of sources, and that it is not typically known when an SB will be executed (so elevations versus time are uncertain). Flux density scale calibration accuracy in this case should be of order 10% at 4- and P-bands, 5% at L- through Ku-bands, and 10-15% for the three higher bands. If more accuracy is needed, a more careful strategy should be adopted, potentially using multiple flux density scale calibrators. The fundamental accuracy of the scale is ~5% at 4- and P-bands, 3% at L- through Ku-bands, increasing to 5% at Q-band. See Perley and Butler (2017) for more details on how the spectral flux densities of 3C48, 3C138*, 3C147, and 3C286 (and many other sources) have been determined across the frequency range from 50 MHz to 50 GHz and how they vary versus time, along with information on the fundamental accuracy of the flux density scale when using these sources.

If less accuracy is needed in the flux density scale calibration, an observation of one of these standard sources need not necessarily be included in an SB. As an example, for a short triggered observation where a simple detection is desired, the time spent slewing back and forth to the flux density scale calibrator can make the SB significantly longer than it could otherwise be. In this scenario, the switched power measurement can be used to calibrate the flux density scale; see EVLA Memo 120 for some background. This technique, which should only be used with the 8-bit samplers, is not a standard path of calibration, but it is possible. The flux density scale accuracy in this case is ~10% for L- through Ku-bands, increasing to ~20% at Q-band; not nearly as good as using the "standard" method of flux density scale calibration, but it may be sufficient for some observers.

For reference, the polynomial expression for the spectral flux density for 3C286 determined in Perley and Butler (2017) is: \[\log(S) = 1.2481 - 0.4507 \log(f) - 0.1798 \log^2(f) + 0.0357 \log^3(f)\] where S is the flux density in Jy, and f is the frequency in GHz.

The tables below show flux densities determined using the polynomial coefficients for a few sources at a single frequency within each of the VLA bands.

We refer the reader to the VLA Observing Guide for the practical considerations (e.g., observing frequency and array configuration, as well as post processing) regarding the choice of the flux density scale calibrator in their scheduling blocks.

* The flux density scale calibrator 3C138 is currently undergoing a flare. As of January 2025, the change in flux density is greater than 10% at all frequencies greater than 4 GHz (i.e., C-band). At present, the magnitude of the flare is approximately a factor of 2 at K-band, 3 at Ka-band, and 4 at Q-band. Monthly monitoring observations are available for investigators that require an accurate flux density scale when using 3C138. These observations are publicly available in the archive under the project code TCAL0009. A table of scaling factors per band per month from February 2021 onward has been provided.

General Guidelines for Complex Gain Calibration

Adequate complex gain calibration (tracking amplitude and phase fluctuations as a function of time) is a complicated function of source-calibrator separation, frequency, array scale (configuration), and weather. Since what defines adequate for some experiments is completely inadequate for others, it is difficult to define simple guidelines to ensure adequate phase calibration. However, some general statements remain valid most of the time. These are given below.

• Under decent conditions with no thunderstorms or ionospheric storms, tropospheric effects dominate at frequencies higher than about 4 GHz; ionospheric effects dominate at frequencies lower than about 4 GHz.
• Atmospheric (troposphere and ionosphere) effects are nearly always unimportant in the C and D configurations at L and S-bands, and in the D configuration at X and C-bands. For these cases, calibration need only be done to track instrumental changes—three or four times per hour is usually sufficient for tracking the system gains.
• If your target object has sufficient flux density to permit phase self-calibration, there is no need to calibrate more than a couple of times per hour at low frequencies or 15 minutes at high frequencies in order to track pointing or other effects that might influence the amplitude scale. The enhanced sensitivity of the VLA guarantees, for full-band continuum observations, that every field will have enough background sources to enable phase self-calibration at L and S-bands. At higher frequencies, the background sky is not sufficient, and only the flux of the target source itself will be available.
• In principle, the smaller the source-calibrator angular separation, the better (even if the closer calibrator is weaker). However, the final choice will depend on the observing frequency. If deciding between a nearby calibrator with an S code in the calibrator database, and a more distant calibrator with a P code, for low frequencies (L-band and below) the nearby calibrator is usually the better choice (low frequency strategy). For higher frequencies it is advisable to use the further away but higher quality P-code calibrator (high frequency strategy). A detailed description of calibrator codes is available in the calibrator list.
• Phase stability often deteriorates dramatically after about 10AM due to small-scale convective cells set up by solar heating, even in clear and calm conditions, especially in the summer. Observers should consider a more rapid calibration cycle for observations between this time and a couple of hours after sundown.
• At high frequencies, and longer configurations, rapid switching between the source and nearby calibrator is needed to track tropospheric phase fluctuations if the target cannot be self-calibrated. See Rapid Phase Calibration and the Atmospheric Phase Interferometer (API) (below).

Rapid Phase Calibration and the Atmospheric Phase Interferometer

For projects requiring imaging in Stokes Q and U, the instrumental polarization should be determined through observations of a bright calibrator source spread over a range in parallactic angle or a single observation of an unpolarized source. The complex gain calibrator chosen for the observations can also double as a polarization calibrator, provided it is at a declination where it moves through enough parallactic angle during the observation (roughly Dec 15–50 degrees during a several hour track).

The minimum condition that will enable accurate polarization calibration from a polarized source, in particular with unknown polarization, is three observations of a bright source spanning at least 60 degrees in parallactic angle (schedule four scans, if possible, in case one is lost); if at all possible, it is strongly recommended that five or more observations covering 100 degrees (or more) of parallactic angle in roughly uniform steps be run. If a bright, unpolarized, unresolved source is available, and known to have very low polarization, then a single scan will suffice to determine the leakage terms. The accuracy of polarization calibration is generally better than 0.5% for small objects as compared to the antenna beam size. At least one observation of 3C286 or 3C138 is required to fix the absolute position angle of polarized emission; 3C48 can be used at frequencies of ~3 GHz and higher, or 3C147 at frequencies over ~10 GHz. Note that 3C48 and 3C138 are variable—the polarization properties are known to be changing significantly over time, most notably at the higher frequencies (for details see Perley and Butler (2013b)).

More information on polarization calibration strategy can be found in the Polarimetry section in the Guide to Observing with the VLA.

The VLA can participate in VLBI observations with the VLBA. This is possible by either using the VLA as a phased array (Y27) or using one of its dishes (single dish: Y1). We note that currently P-band cannot be phased. For more details see the VLBI at the VLA documentation. In phased array mode, the program TelCal derives the antenna-based delay and phase corrections needed for antenna phasing in real time. This correction is applied to the antenna signals before they are summed, requantized to 2-bits, and recorded in VDIF format on the Mark5C disk at the VLA site. The disk(s) are then transported to Socorro, NM and correlated on the DiFX correlator with other VLBI stations which participated in the observation.

Standard VLA data, i.e., correlations between VLA antennas, are also archived in the NRAO science data archive. By default, a maximum of 512 MHz dual polarization is phased/recorded and sent to the archive. This leaves a large portion of the possible VLA bandwidth unused (up to 2 or 8 GHz total depending on sampler choice). Increasing the bandwidth to the maximum that the VLA can provide has obvious benefits for most continuum observations. Pulsar gating can be performed commensally with the phased VLA, avoiding the need for extra single dish observations. Line VLBI observations that run through the WIDAR correlator currently produce each requested VLBI subband bandwidth divided into full polarization products with 64 frequency channels, regardless of the requested spectral resolution obtained in the VLBI correlation. By adding unused baseline boards to the VLBI-specified line subbands, a closer match in spectral resolution can be offered for the standalone VLA data. If you think your science could benefit from these capabilities, please review our documentation on VLBI at the VLA or contact the helpdesk for further guidance.

The two-dimensional geometry of the VLA allows a snapshot mode whereby short observations can be used to image relatively bright, unconfused sources. This mode is ideal for survey work where the sensitivity requirements are modest.

Single snapshots with good phase stability of strong sources should give dynamic ranges of a few hundred. Note that because the snapshot synthesized beam contains high sidelobes, the effects of background confusing sources are much worse than for full syntheses, especially at 20 cm and longer wavelengths in the D configuration. For instance, at 20 cm, a single snapshot will give a limiting noise of about 0.2 mJy. This level can be reduced by taking multiple snapshots separated by at least one hour. The deconvolution of the data is necessary to remove the effects of background sources. Before considering snapshot observations at 20 cm, users should first determine if the goals desired can be achieved with the existing Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-centimeters survey (FIRST, http://sundog.stsci.edu/top.html) (B configuration) or the NRAO VLA Sky Survey (NVSS, http://www.cv.nrao.edu/nvss/) (D configuration, all-sky).

Observations at low elevation in the C and D configurations will commonly be affected by shadowing. It is strongly recommended that all data from a shadowed antenna be discarded. This will automatically be done during filling when using the default inputs with CASA tasks importasdm and importevla. AIPS task UVFLG can be used to flag VLA data based on shadowing, although it will only flag based on antennas in the dataset, and is ignorant of antennas in other subarrays. The CASA task flagdata can also be used to flag data based on shadowing. For more information on shadowing, please see the Antenna Shadowing section in the Guide to Observing with the VLA.

Cross-talk is an effect in which signals from one antenna are picked up by an adjacent antenna, causing an erroneous correlation. This effect is important at low frequencies in compact configurations. Careful examination of the visibilities is necessary to identify and remove this form of interference. The affected data would show time-variable high-amplitude points.